When we are gathering information and trying to decide what we actually think about something, it is generally considered a good idea to use a little critical thinking before declaring the matter settled and an opinion made ... Inconvenient, I know.
It would be so much easier if every book, article, documentary, viral post, politician, professor, historian, or person on the internet simply handed us the complete and unbiased truth on a silver platter. Unfortunately information is often incomplete, people are often biased, and everything has the very irritating habit of being more complicated than it appears at first glance.
Critical thinking can feel confusing at first, even. But that is because it is a skill. And like any other skill in existence, it has to be learned and practiced; as Alfred Mander once put it:
Thinking is skilled work. It is not true that we are naturally endowed with the ability to think clearly and logically– without learning how or without practicing.
It is also worth remembering that thinking critically doesn't simply mean criticizing everything you encounter. It means not accepting information at face value without stopping and taking the appropriate amount of time to consider it carefully; the essence of critical thinking centers not on answering questions, but on questioning things in the first place. And that means probing, examining, comparing, analyzing, and evaluating the information in front of you before deciding what to do with it.
With that in mind, here are several useful habits for thinking a little more carefully about the world.
1. Check the source
Who wrote the article? Who scripted the program? Who produced the video? How knowledgeable is the source about the subject? Do they have a particular interest, bias, prejudice, or “angle” that might influence what they are saying? Are they known to you through their reputation or previous work? This can be particularly difficult with websites, where it is not always immediately clear who is actually responsible for the information being presented. But before deciding whether something is true, it is worth asking who is telling you that it is.
2. Check the publication date
Generally speaking, the more recent material is, the more likely it is to include newer information- making it more likely to be accurate or useful; particularly when circumstances around the subject have changed significantly over time.
In a war reporting, for instance, even a few days (or sometimes a few hours) can make a significant difference to what information is available and how events are understood. but this is also applicable to Science, which is not stagnant, but is instead ever-evolving.
The internet makes this particularly tricky because information is frequently shared without a publication date- and old articles are frequently circulated well beyond their proper lifespan. Something can look current while actually being years old, as a result. Before sharing something around, it's worth checking whether it has already gone out of date.
3. Check the publisher, promoter, or funder
Information does not appear in a vacuum. Many platforms and individuals have a definite political orientation, and they can be reasonably expected to favor a particular interpretation of events as a result. That does not automatically mean the information is false. But it does mean you should know who paid for it before deciding how much weight to give it.
4. Remember that prominence does not equal importance
A newspaper might make the rumored breakup between two celebrities the lead story of the day. That does not necessarily make it the most important thing happening, however. What receives the most attention is not always what matters most- and what seems small at the moment is not always insignificant.
5. Look for exceptions
There is an old saying that “the exception proves the rule”. Scientifically speaking, though, an exception often disproves the rule entirely. Exceptions matter because they can force us to reconsider what we think we know- and sometimes one very inconvenient little exception is more than enough to ruin an entire theory.
6. Look for trends
Absolute numbers can be useful, but they do not always tell us the whole story. Economic growth, crime rates, hospital waiting lists, and countless other things can be measured in different ways. A single number may not mean much by itself. But if the same method of measurement is used consistently over time, trends can become visible.
You may see a rise. You may see a fall. You may see a cycle. Or you may even see a pattern that was impossible to notice when you were looking at only one isolated moment.
7. Look for cause and effect
Correlation does not necessarily mean causation; just because two things happen together does not mean one caused the other, nor that the two are related. The point is to ask whether two things merely happen at the same time- or whether there is actual evidence that one caused the other.
8. Always consider alternative explanations
As we have seen since the 1990's, the sharp decline in crime around the United States appears to be caused by more police, better detection, and changes in society ... But the continued perception of high crime is due to simple changes in how new stations and the internet speak about and report crime.
The first explanation you hear is not necessarily the only explanation available. It is imperative to dig deeper.
9. Seek out assumptions
Most statements are built upon assumptions. Sometimes those assumptions are openly stated, but many times they are never stated aloud. Regardless, assumptions aren't necessarily safely made. So look for the assumptions beneath an argument; sometimes the most important part of a statement is the part nobody bothered to say out loud.
10. Beware of making assumptions yourself
There is an old adage that says “Assuming makes an ass out of you and me”. The line is crude, perhaps. But still useful: Be careful about assuming that you already know the answer. You might be right. But you could be wrong. So it's pertinent to double check anyway.
11. Don't jump to conclusions
The facts currently available to you may point toward a particular conclusion, but other conclusions may still be possible. New information might later support an entirely different explanation, or even invalidate the one you originally accepted. But even if your original conclusion turns out to be correct, additional evidence is still useful.
12. Don't rest on authority
There is a saying that “great minds think alike”, but there is also the saying that “fools seldom differ”.
Experts are experts for a reason, and specialized knowledge matters. But even brilliant people can be mistaken, biased, limited by the information available to them, or simply working within the accepted assumptions of their time. Study the evidence. Consider the arguments. Then make your own judgment based on the balance of what is actually available.
13. Don't automatically accept received wisdom
Ideas become popular and eventually become "common knowledge". Sometimes, however, everyone is continuing to repeat it simply because everyone else has been repeating it for years. Even the most fundamental rules of life can be questioned, though. The important thing is to gather the evidence and subject it to review and analysis. And “everybody knows” is not actually evidence.
14. Look for meaningful statements
Politicians and businesspeople are particularly talented at saying things that sound meaningful without actually committing to very much. These vague statements can usually survive almost anything, as long as they're not scrutinized too closelt. But specific statements can actually be measured.
15. Beware of anecdotes
An anecdote is not evidence. At best, it is one person's experience. And while one person's story can be interesting, moving, or can even point you toward something worth investigating? It should not be treated as proof of anything; at worst, anecdotes are unsubstantiated rumors.
16. Challenge the phrase “It works”
What does “it works” actually mean? Over what period? For whom? Compared to what? The fact that something happened after something else does not necessarily prove that the first thing caused the second. Ask what “works” means- then ask whether there is actual evidence of cause and effect.
17. Challenge “There is no alternative”
There is almost always an alternative. Sometimes that alternative is simply doing nothing and waiting to see what happens. Often there is more than one alternative, they just haven't been considered or acknowledged. Those alternatives may be more expensive, less convenient, or even less effective. But they still deserve to be considered before someone presents one particular option as though it were the only possible path forward.
18. Beware of groupthink
Groupthink can be very seductive. It is particularly easy to fall into when you belong to a closeknit group with a strong sense of belief. Especially if that group has a tendency to view outsiders as dangerous, ignorant, or morally inferior.
This can happen in political groups, religious communities, basic social circles, academic institutions, workplaces ... And yes, even homemaking groups; anywhere people gather. But if everyone around you agrees that questioning the group is suspicious, that is probably an excellent time to start asking a few questions.
19. On the other hand, trust your instincts
This may sound like the opposite of everything I have just said. It isn't, however. Your instincts are not proof by any means, but they can be an excellent signal that you ought to investigate something further. So if something doesn't feel right, even when it appears in official capacities, it may be worth digging deeper into it. Especially since people make mistakes fairly frequently. And unfortunately the corrections rarely receive the same attention as the original error.
20. Always look for evidence
We are naturally tempted to seize that evidence which confirms what we already believe, while, at the same time, dismissing any evidence we find that that challenges it. We all do this. But that is precisely why we have to make a conscious effort not to.
Remain openminded and equally rigorous about the evidence which both supports your view, and which challenges it. And remember, always, that evidence is not merely information that happens to agree with you.
21. Deconstruct the elements
Breaking something down into its individual parts can help you understand what is actually working, and what isn't.
If you are considering a paper or speech, examine the argument, evidence, structure, and presentation. If you are reading a novel, consider the plot, characterization, and language. If you are watching a film, think about the script, acting, direction, cinematography, and music.
By taking things apart, you may discover that the answer is more interesting than you expected.
22. Think about what isn't there
When we are asked to respond to something, most of us focus on what we can see or hear. What is missing, however, can be equally (if not more) important. Absence is not always proof of wrongdoing, but it is often worth noticing.
23. Consider a SWOT analysis
SWOT analysis is a strategic planning method that examines the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats involved in a project or situation. It can be a relatively quick, comprehensive, and occasionally rather enjoyable way to assess something. More importantly, though. it encourages you to look at different sides of the same situation.
24. Learn to think outside the box- and then think the unthinkable
The answer you are being asked may not be the only answer available. Sometimes the best thing you can do is question the question you are being asked in the first place. Thinking the “unthinkable” means considering the most basic assumptions, and entertaining possibilities that initially seem far outside the range of acceptable answers; the possibilities we dismiss as ridiculous are occasionally possibilities we have not given ourselves permission to consider.
25. Speak with others
Encourage diversity of thought. Brainstorm your ideas, show drafts of your work to friends, welcome corrections, accept suggestions, listen to constructive criticism; allow yourself to be challenged, and embrace change when change is warranted.
There is no shame in discovering that someone else has noticed something you missed. And there's certainly no shame in finding out you were wrong about something you thought. Frankly, that is one of the more useful things other people are for.
26. Finally, remember that critical thinking ends in “why?”
The word why may be one of the most useful tools in your mental toolbox.
Why is this person writing this story in this particular newspaper? Why is this politician making this statement now? Why has the author of this paper quoted this source and not another? Why has she used a percentage rather than an absolute figure? Why am I being told this? Why should I believe it? Why does this explanation make more sense than the alternatives? And perhaps most importantly: Why am I asking all these questions?
Critical thinking is not about becoming cynical, suspicious of everything around you, or convinced that nobody can be trusted. It is about learning to pay attention; being willing to pause before accepting something simply because it sounds convincing, agrees with what you already believe, comes from someone important, or has been repeated often enough to feel true.
Check your sources. Look for evidence. Question assumptions (including your own). Consider alternatives. Notice what has been left out. Listen to your instincts, but test them. And when in doubt, keep asking why.
You may not always find the answer. But you are much less likely to be carried away by someone else's answer without ever stopping to decide whether it makes sense in the first place.
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